SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
INDIFIDUAL LEARNER DIFFERENCES AND SLA
by GROUP B Class D
ENGLISH DEPARTEMENT
LANGUAGE AND SCIENCE FACULTY
WIJAYA KUSUMA SURABAYA UNIVERSITY
2009
INDIFIDUAL LEARNER DIFFERENCES AND SLA
Aspects of SLA Influenced by Individual learners Factors
There are two basic possibilies which aspect of SLA is affected by individual learner factors. One is that differences in age, learning stytle aptitude, motivation, and personality result in differences in the route along which learners pass in SLA. The other is that these factors influenceonly the rate and ultimate success of SLA. These are separate issues. To claim that individuals vary in the rateat which they learn or the level of competence they eventually attain is not controversial. Indeed, is part of most language learners and teachers experoence. However, to claim that individual differences influences these sequences or order in which linguistics knowledge is acquired is far more controversial. In runs counter to the arguments and evidence in favor of the natural route of developments.
As will be seen in the discussion of each indivual learners factors, the effect of the route of SLA has not been seriously investigated. Nearly, all the researches into learner variable has involved either investigating there effects on the proviciency levels achieved by different learners, or discribing how they effected in individual learner’s respon to the teks of learning a L2. neither provicience nor learning respons provides any insights about the route of acquisition.
There are stark disaggrement about the role of individual differences in SLA. As fillmore (1979) points out, on the one hand individual differences are seen as an all important factors, while on the order there are treated as relatifely insignificant. Research which has concentrated on accounting for differences in the proficiency levels of leraners has tended to impashize the importance of individual leaners factors. Research which has tried to eximine the process of SLA has tended to play done their importance.
Identification and Clasification of Llearner Factors
The identification and clarification of the different individual factors has proved to be problematic. The main difficulty is that it is not possible to observe dirrectly qualities such as aptitude, motivation, or unxiety. There are merely levels for clusters of behavior and, not surprisingly, difference reseachers have used these labels to describe different sets of behavoral traits. As a result, it is not easy to compare and eveluate the results of their invetigations. It is, therefore, not surprising to find that a host of terms have been employed to describe the phenomena.Hwkey (1982) List some of these: effective, cognitive, and social factors (Tucker et al 1976 ) and ability factors (Chaistain 1975), attitudinal / motivational characteristics (Gardner et al 1979 ).
In an attempt to impose some order on these plethora of terms and consepts, to make an initial distinction between personal and general factors. Personal factors are highly idiosyncretic features of each individual’s approach to learning a L2. some examples are provided by schumann (1977) in a report of their own language learning eperiences. The include nesting patterns (the need for secure and orderly home base before learning can effectivelly begin), transition axiety (the stress generated by moving to a foreign place), and the desire to the maintain and personal language leaning agenda the Schumann foud that the factors stongly inflenced their SLA.
Personal and general factors have social, cognitive, and affective aspects. Social aspets are external to the learner and concern the relationship between the learner and native speakers of the L2 and also between the learners and other speakers of his own laguage. Cognitive and affective aspects are internal to the learners. Cognitive factors consern the nature of the problem solving stategies used by the learner, while affective factors concern the emotional responces aroused by the attempt to learn L2. different personal nad general factors involved a three aspects in different degress. Atitude, for instance, is tought of as primarily cognitive in nature, but also involves affective and social aspects. Personality is primarily affective but also has social and cognitive sides. Age is a factors that may involves all three aspects fairly equally. It is because the personal and general factors that make up an individual’s language learning style are composed of social cognitive, and affective features that there are so complex, and as a result, often rather vaguely defined. Nevertheless, as the subsequent discussion will show, they play an important role in SLA.
Personal Factors
Second language acquisition is defined as the learning and adopting of a language that is not your native language. Once you have acquired a foreign language, you have mastered that language
Second language acquisition may be more difficult for some people due to certain social factors. One highly studied social factor impeding language development is the issue of extraverts versus introverts.Studies have shown that extraverts (or unreserved and outgoing people) acquire a second language better than introverts (or shy people).
One particular study done by Naiman reflected this point. The subjects were 72 Canadian high school students from grades 8, 10 and 12 who were studying French as a second language.Naiman gave them all questionnaires to establish their psychological profiles, which also included a French listening test and imitation test. He found that approximately 70% of the students with the higher grades (B or higher) would consider themselves extraverts.
Extraverts will be willing to try to communicate even if they are not sure they will succeed. Two scientists, Kinginger and Farrell, conducted interviews with U.S. students after their study abroad program in France in 2003. They found that many of the students would avoid interaction with the native speakers at all costs, while others jumped at the opportunity to speak the language. Those who avoided interaction were typically quiet, reserved people, (or introverts).
Logically, fear will cause students not to try and advance their skills, especially when they feel they are under pressure. Just the lack of practice will make introverts less likely to fully acquire the second language.
Group Dynamics
Group dinamics seem to be important in classroom SLA. Bailey (1983) records in some detail anxiety and competitiveness experienced by a number of diarists. Some classroom learners make overt comparisons of themselves with other learners competitiveness may be manifasted in a desire to out do other language learners by shouting out answers in class, or by resing trough examination to be the first to finish. Mc Donough (1978) in a review of response on their own intensive language learning experiences by students on the M.A. in applied linguistics course at the Universitty of Essex also pin point groups dinamics as an importants set of personal variables.
As a result of the analysis of competitiveness in different language learners, Bailey (1983). Proposes a model of how the learners self image in comparisons with other L2 learners can either impair or enhance SLA. In the case of the formar learners may reduces or abandon learning effort. In the case of the letter leraners increse their effort in order to compare more favourably with other learners, and as a result learning is enhanced. Where the comparison results in a succesfull self image the learners experiences positive rewards and thuse contious to display effort so learning is also enhanced.
Attitude to the Teacher and Course Material
Students will inevitably have very different views about the kind of teacher they think is best for them. Some prefer a teacher who, in Stevick’s (1980) term creates space for them to pursue their own learning paths. Others prefer a teacher who structures the learning tasks much more tightly.
In general the diarists seem to prefer the former. Bailey (1980) for instance states a definite preference for a democratic teaching style. Some learners wanted the teacher to act as informant, but other praised teachers who were logical,clear,and systematic. The main generalization to emerge from picker’s study is that learners need to feel sympathy for their teacher.
Learners also vary in their attitudes to teaching material. In general, adult learners dislike having a coursebook imposed upon them in a rigid way. They prefer a variety of materils and the opportunity to use them in ways they choose for themselves. Mc Donough’s students,for instance often object to the pace and intensity of the short five week courses they took part in. they report being unable to cope with external pressure. Although some students after closer reflection, express an appreciation of this pressure. However all these studies dealt with the responses of teacher placed in a learning situation. Other learners may prove less critical than teacher-learners.
Individual Learning Techniques
There is tremendous variety in the techniques employed by different learners. They will be dealt with in two groups: those involved in studying the L2, and those involved in obtaining L2 input.
Naiman et al. (1978) and Pickett (1978) identify numerous study techniques. Here is a sample of those that learners reported they used to develop their vocabulary in the L2:
1. Preparing and memorizing vocabulaty list
Individual learners appear to have highly idiosyncratic ways of coping with this. For instance, one of Pickett’s subjects kept a notebook in which he recorded first the English word, then the foreign word in phonetic transcription, and finally the orthograpic ersion of the foreign word. He also reported having three vocabulary lists, which he kept going at the same time – one was arranged chronologically, the second alphabetically or situationally.
2. Learning words in context
Some learners made no attempt to keep lists. They relied on picking out key vocabulary items from the contexts in which they were used.
3. Practising vocabulary
Various techniques fall under this heading: deliberately putting words onto different structures in order to drill oneself, reading to reinforce vocabulary, playing games such as trying to think of words with the same ending, and repeating words to oneself.
The second group of learning technoques concerns the ways in which the learners gets into contact with the L2. learners often seek out situations in which they can communicate with native – speakers, or they make useof the radio or cinema to get maximmum exposure to the L2. some learners even arrange their holidays so they visit a country where the L2 is used.
General Factors
The fourth feature is that learner factors may influence the mastery of L2. Ellis (1985:10-12) shows that there are five general factors that contribute to individual learner differences:
Age is the variable that has been most frequently considered in discussion of individual differences in SLA.
Aptitude
Cognitive style,
Motivation,
Personality
Intelligence and Aptitude
Intelligence
Intelegence is the term used to refer to a hypotheisized ‘general factor’, which underlies our ability to master and use awhole range of academic skills. As McDonough (1981;126) emphasizes, it refers to capacity rather than contents of the main. That is, it is the underlying ability to learn, rather than the actual knowledge that is supposedly measured by intelegence tests.
To what extent does the “g” factor influence SLA? Oller and Perkins (1978: 413) have argued that “there exixts a global language proficiency factor which accounts for the bulk of the reliable varience in a wide variety of language proficiency measures”. They claim that the “g” factor of language proficiency is identical with the “g” factor of inteligency.
To conclude, intelegence may influence the acquisition of some skills associated with SLA, such as those utilized in the formal study of a L2. but, it is much less likely to influence the aquisiyion of oral fluency skills. Another ways, intelegence may be a powerful predictor of success in classroom SLA, particularly when this consists of formal teching methods, but much less so in naturalistic SLA, when L2 knowledge is developed trough learning how to communicate in the target language. It should also be noted that the effects of intelegence are limited to the rate and success of SLA: there is no evidence that intelegence affects the route of acquisition evidence that intelegence affects the route of acquisition evident in sponaeous language use.
Aptitude
Aptitude is not easy to define. It is usually defined in terms of the test that have been used to measured it (carroll and Sapon’s Mpdern language Aptitude Test (1959) and Pimleur’s language Aptitude Battery (1966)) these tests do not measure exactly the same behaviours. Both tests, however seek to measure the abilities of learners to descriminate the meaningfull sounds of language.
Carroll and Sapon (1959) identify three major components of aptitudes:
- phonetic coding ability, which consists of the ability to perceive and memorize new sounds;
- grammatical sensitivity, which is the individual’s ability to demonstate awareness of the syntactical patterning of sentences of a language (ibid: 7);
- inductive ability , which consist of the ability to notice and identify similarities and differences in both grammatical form and meaning.
The effects of aptitude on languaeg learning have been measured in terms of the proficiency levels achieved by different classroom leaners . the usual procedures is to obtain aptitude scores using one of the tests reffered to above, and provicience scores consisting of the results of a language test or teacher’s grade.
nother set of doubts concerns what aspect of SLA is affected by aptitude. Krashen (1981) distinguishes two aspects of SLA: acquisition and learning. Acquisition is the subconcious internalization of L2 knowledge that occurs through using the L2 naturally and spontaneously. Learning is the concious study of a L2 that results in knowledge about the rules of the language. Krashen argues that aptitude relates only to learning.
Tests of language aptitude have proven extremely effective in predicting which learners will be successful in learning. However, considerable controversy remains about whether language aptitude is properly regarded as a unitary concept, an organic property of the brain, or as a complex of factors including motivation and short-term memory. Research has generally shown that language aptitude is quite distinct from general aptitude or intelligence, as measured by various tests, and is itself fairly consistently measurable by different tests.
Language aptitude research is often criticized for being irrelevant to the problems of language learners, who must attempt to learn a language regardless of whether they are gifted for the task or not. This claim is reinforced by research findings that aptitude is largely unchangeable. In addition, traditional language aptitude measures such as the Modern Language Aptitude Test strongly favor decontextualized knowledge of the sort used in taking tests, rather than the sort used in conversation.
by GROUP B Class D
ENGLISH DEPARTEMENT
LANGUAGE AND SCIENCE FACULTY
WIJAYA KUSUMA SURABAYA UNIVERSITY
2009
INDIFIDUAL LEARNER DIFFERENCES AND SLA
Aspects of SLA Influenced by Individual learners Factors
There are two basic possibilies which aspect of SLA is affected by individual learner factors. One is that differences in age, learning stytle aptitude, motivation, and personality result in differences in the route along which learners pass in SLA. The other is that these factors influenceonly the rate and ultimate success of SLA. These are separate issues. To claim that individuals vary in the rateat which they learn or the level of competence they eventually attain is not controversial. Indeed, is part of most language learners and teachers experoence. However, to claim that individual differences influences these sequences or order in which linguistics knowledge is acquired is far more controversial. In runs counter to the arguments and evidence in favor of the natural route of developments.
As will be seen in the discussion of each indivual learners factors, the effect of the route of SLA has not been seriously investigated. Nearly, all the researches into learner variable has involved either investigating there effects on the proviciency levels achieved by different learners, or discribing how they effected in individual learner’s respon to the teks of learning a L2. neither provicience nor learning respons provides any insights about the route of acquisition.
There are stark disaggrement about the role of individual differences in SLA. As fillmore (1979) points out, on the one hand individual differences are seen as an all important factors, while on the order there are treated as relatifely insignificant. Research which has concentrated on accounting for differences in the proficiency levels of leraners has tended to impashize the importance of individual leaners factors. Research which has tried to eximine the process of SLA has tended to play done their importance.
Identification and Clasification of Llearner Factors
The identification and clarification of the different individual factors has proved to be problematic. The main difficulty is that it is not possible to observe dirrectly qualities such as aptitude, motivation, or unxiety. There are merely levels for clusters of behavior and, not surprisingly, difference reseachers have used these labels to describe different sets of behavoral traits. As a result, it is not easy to compare and eveluate the results of their invetigations. It is, therefore, not surprising to find that a host of terms have been employed to describe the phenomena.Hwkey (1982) List some of these: effective, cognitive, and social factors (Tucker et al 1976 ) and ability factors (Chaistain 1975), attitudinal / motivational characteristics (Gardner et al 1979 ).
In an attempt to impose some order on these plethora of terms and consepts, to make an initial distinction between personal and general factors. Personal factors are highly idiosyncretic features of each individual’s approach to learning a L2. some examples are provided by schumann (1977) in a report of their own language learning eperiences. The include nesting patterns (the need for secure and orderly home base before learning can effectivelly begin), transition axiety (the stress generated by moving to a foreign place), and the desire to the maintain and personal language leaning agenda the Schumann foud that the factors stongly inflenced their SLA.
Personal and general factors have social, cognitive, and affective aspects. Social aspets are external to the learner and concern the relationship between the learner and native speakers of the L2 and also between the learners and other speakers of his own laguage. Cognitive and affective aspects are internal to the learners. Cognitive factors consern the nature of the problem solving stategies used by the learner, while affective factors concern the emotional responces aroused by the attempt to learn L2. different personal nad general factors involved a three aspects in different degress. Atitude, for instance, is tought of as primarily cognitive in nature, but also involves affective and social aspects. Personality is primarily affective but also has social and cognitive sides. Age is a factors that may involves all three aspects fairly equally. It is because the personal and general factors that make up an individual’s language learning style are composed of social cognitive, and affective features that there are so complex, and as a result, often rather vaguely defined. Nevertheless, as the subsequent discussion will show, they play an important role in SLA.
Personal Factors
Second language acquisition is defined as the learning and adopting of a language that is not your native language. Once you have acquired a foreign language, you have mastered that language
Second language acquisition may be more difficult for some people due to certain social factors. One highly studied social factor impeding language development is the issue of extraverts versus introverts.Studies have shown that extraverts (or unreserved and outgoing people) acquire a second language better than introverts (or shy people).
One particular study done by Naiman reflected this point. The subjects were 72 Canadian high school students from grades 8, 10 and 12 who were studying French as a second language.Naiman gave them all questionnaires to establish their psychological profiles, which also included a French listening test and imitation test. He found that approximately 70% of the students with the higher grades (B or higher) would consider themselves extraverts.
Extraverts will be willing to try to communicate even if they are not sure they will succeed. Two scientists, Kinginger and Farrell, conducted interviews with U.S. students after their study abroad program in France in 2003. They found that many of the students would avoid interaction with the native speakers at all costs, while others jumped at the opportunity to speak the language. Those who avoided interaction were typically quiet, reserved people, (or introverts).
Logically, fear will cause students not to try and advance their skills, especially when they feel they are under pressure. Just the lack of practice will make introverts less likely to fully acquire the second language.
Group Dynamics
Group dinamics seem to be important in classroom SLA. Bailey (1983) records in some detail anxiety and competitiveness experienced by a number of diarists. Some classroom learners make overt comparisons of themselves with other learners competitiveness may be manifasted in a desire to out do other language learners by shouting out answers in class, or by resing trough examination to be the first to finish. Mc Donough (1978) in a review of response on their own intensive language learning experiences by students on the M.A. in applied linguistics course at the Universitty of Essex also pin point groups dinamics as an importants set of personal variables.
As a result of the analysis of competitiveness in different language learners, Bailey (1983). Proposes a model of how the learners self image in comparisons with other L2 learners can either impair or enhance SLA. In the case of the formar learners may reduces or abandon learning effort. In the case of the letter leraners increse their effort in order to compare more favourably with other learners, and as a result learning is enhanced. Where the comparison results in a succesfull self image the learners experiences positive rewards and thuse contious to display effort so learning is also enhanced.
Attitude to the Teacher and Course Material
Students will inevitably have very different views about the kind of teacher they think is best for them. Some prefer a teacher who, in Stevick’s (1980) term creates space for them to pursue their own learning paths. Others prefer a teacher who structures the learning tasks much more tightly.
In general the diarists seem to prefer the former. Bailey (1980) for instance states a definite preference for a democratic teaching style. Some learners wanted the teacher to act as informant, but other praised teachers who were logical,clear,and systematic. The main generalization to emerge from picker’s study is that learners need to feel sympathy for their teacher.
Learners also vary in their attitudes to teaching material. In general, adult learners dislike having a coursebook imposed upon them in a rigid way. They prefer a variety of materils and the opportunity to use them in ways they choose for themselves. Mc Donough’s students,for instance often object to the pace and intensity of the short five week courses they took part in. they report being unable to cope with external pressure. Although some students after closer reflection, express an appreciation of this pressure. However all these studies dealt with the responses of teacher placed in a learning situation. Other learners may prove less critical than teacher-learners.
Individual Learning Techniques
There is tremendous variety in the techniques employed by different learners. They will be dealt with in two groups: those involved in studying the L2, and those involved in obtaining L2 input.
Naiman et al. (1978) and Pickett (1978) identify numerous study techniques. Here is a sample of those that learners reported they used to develop their vocabulary in the L2:
1. Preparing and memorizing vocabulaty list
Individual learners appear to have highly idiosyncratic ways of coping with this. For instance, one of Pickett’s subjects kept a notebook in which he recorded first the English word, then the foreign word in phonetic transcription, and finally the orthograpic ersion of the foreign word. He also reported having three vocabulary lists, which he kept going at the same time – one was arranged chronologically, the second alphabetically or situationally.
2. Learning words in context
Some learners made no attempt to keep lists. They relied on picking out key vocabulary items from the contexts in which they were used.
3. Practising vocabulary
Various techniques fall under this heading: deliberately putting words onto different structures in order to drill oneself, reading to reinforce vocabulary, playing games such as trying to think of words with the same ending, and repeating words to oneself.
The second group of learning technoques concerns the ways in which the learners gets into contact with the L2. learners often seek out situations in which they can communicate with native – speakers, or they make useof the radio or cinema to get maximmum exposure to the L2. some learners even arrange their holidays so they visit a country where the L2 is used.
General Factors
The fourth feature is that learner factors may influence the mastery of L2. Ellis (1985:10-12) shows that there are five general factors that contribute to individual learner differences:
Age is the variable that has been most frequently considered in discussion of individual differences in SLA.
Aptitude
Cognitive style,
Motivation,
Personality
Intelligence and Aptitude
Intelligence
Intelegence is the term used to refer to a hypotheisized ‘general factor’, which underlies our ability to master and use awhole range of academic skills. As McDonough (1981;126) emphasizes, it refers to capacity rather than contents of the main. That is, it is the underlying ability to learn, rather than the actual knowledge that is supposedly measured by intelegence tests.
To what extent does the “g” factor influence SLA? Oller and Perkins (1978: 413) have argued that “there exixts a global language proficiency factor which accounts for the bulk of the reliable varience in a wide variety of language proficiency measures”. They claim that the “g” factor of language proficiency is identical with the “g” factor of inteligency.
To conclude, intelegence may influence the acquisition of some skills associated with SLA, such as those utilized in the formal study of a L2. but, it is much less likely to influence the aquisiyion of oral fluency skills. Another ways, intelegence may be a powerful predictor of success in classroom SLA, particularly when this consists of formal teching methods, but much less so in naturalistic SLA, when L2 knowledge is developed trough learning how to communicate in the target language. It should also be noted that the effects of intelegence are limited to the rate and success of SLA: there is no evidence that intelegence affects the route of acquisition evidence that intelegence affects the route of acquisition evident in sponaeous language use.
Aptitude
Aptitude is not easy to define. It is usually defined in terms of the test that have been used to measured it (carroll and Sapon’s Mpdern language Aptitude Test (1959) and Pimleur’s language Aptitude Battery (1966)) these tests do not measure exactly the same behaviours. Both tests, however seek to measure the abilities of learners to descriminate the meaningfull sounds of language.
Carroll and Sapon (1959) identify three major components of aptitudes:
- phonetic coding ability, which consists of the ability to perceive and memorize new sounds;
- grammatical sensitivity, which is the individual’s ability to demonstate awareness of the syntactical patterning of sentences of a language (ibid: 7);
- inductive ability , which consist of the ability to notice and identify similarities and differences in both grammatical form and meaning.
The effects of aptitude on languaeg learning have been measured in terms of the proficiency levels achieved by different classroom leaners . the usual procedures is to obtain aptitude scores using one of the tests reffered to above, and provicience scores consisting of the results of a language test or teacher’s grade.
nother set of doubts concerns what aspect of SLA is affected by aptitude. Krashen (1981) distinguishes two aspects of SLA: acquisition and learning. Acquisition is the subconcious internalization of L2 knowledge that occurs through using the L2 naturally and spontaneously. Learning is the concious study of a L2 that results in knowledge about the rules of the language. Krashen argues that aptitude relates only to learning.
Tests of language aptitude have proven extremely effective in predicting which learners will be successful in learning. However, considerable controversy remains about whether language aptitude is properly regarded as a unitary concept, an organic property of the brain, or as a complex of factors including motivation and short-term memory. Research has generally shown that language aptitude is quite distinct from general aptitude or intelligence, as measured by various tests, and is itself fairly consistently measurable by different tests.
Language aptitude research is often criticized for being irrelevant to the problems of language learners, who must attempt to learn a language regardless of whether they are gifted for the task or not. This claim is reinforced by research findings that aptitude is largely unchangeable. In addition, traditional language aptitude measures such as the Modern Language Aptitude Test strongly favor decontextualized knowledge of the sort used in taking tests, rather than the sort used in conversation.
Conclusion
This discussion of the role of intelligence and aptitude in SlA indicates that there are several problems in establishing whether any effects can be traced to their influence and if so, what the effects are. The main problem is one of deffinition. Is intelligence distinct from aptitude, or are both aspects of a single general language faculty as a claimed by Oller.
Attitude and Motivation
The problems of defining attitudes and motivation are considerable. A common – sense view is that a person’s behaviour is governedby certain needs and interests which influence how he actually performs. It is nit always clear in SLA research what the disticntion is between attitudes and motivation. Schumann (1978) lists attitudes as a social factors on a part with variables such as “ size of learning groups and motivation ” as an affective factor alongside culture shock. Gardener and Lambert (1972) define motivation in terms of the L2 learner’s overall goal or orientation and attitude as the persistence shown by the learner in striving for goals. Brown (1981) also distinguishes motivation and attitudes. He identifies three types of motivation:
1. global motivation, which consists of general orientation to the goal of learning a L2.
2. Situational motivation, which varies according to the situation in which learning take place ( the motivation associated with classroom learning is distinct from the motivation involved in naturalistic learning)
3. Task motivation, which is the motivation for performing particular learning tasks.
The results of the empirical research based on Gardner and Lambert’s theoretical framework are mixed and difficult to interpret.
The following a summary if the major findings:
1. motivation and attitudes are important factors, which help to determine the level of proficiency achieved by different learners.
2. the effect of motivation or attitudes appear to be separate from the effect of aptitude. The most succesful learners will be those who have both a tallent and a high level of motivation of learning.
3. in certain situations an interogative motivation may more powerful in fasilitating successful L2 learners, but in other situations instrumental motivations may count far more.
4. the level abd type of motivation is strongly influenced by the social context in which learning takes place, as has already been noted.
The role of motivation in SLA has been the subject of extensive scholarship, closely influenced by work in motivational psychology. Motivation is internally complex, and Dörnyei (2001a, p. 1) begins his work by stating that "strictly speaking, there is no such thing as motivation." There are many different kinds of motivation; these are often divided into types such as integrative or instrumental, intrinsic or extrinsic. Intrinsic motivation refers to the desire to do something for an internal reward. Most studies have shown it to be substantially more effective in long-term language learning than extrinsic motivation, for an external reward such as high grades or praise. Integrative and instrumental orientations refer to the degree that a language is learned "for its own sake" (integratively) or for instrumental purposes. Studies have not consistently shown either form of motivation to be more effective than the other, and the role of each is probably conditioned by various personality and cultural factors.
Some research has shown that motivation correlates strongly with proficiency, indicating both that successful learners are motivated and that success improves motivation. Thus motivation is not fixed, but is strongly affected by feedback from the environment. Accordingly, the study of motivation in SLA has also examined many of the external factors discussed above, such as the effect of instructional techniques on motivation. An accessible summary of this research can be found in Dörnyei (2001a).
In their research on Willingness to communicate, MacIntyre et al (1998) have shown that motivation is not the final construct before learners engage in communication. In fact, learners may be highly motivated yet remain unwilling to communicate.
Personality
In general psychology, personality has been explored in terms of a number of personal traits, which in aggregate are said to constitute the personality of an individual. Cattell (1970), for instance attemps to measure personality using a series of dichotomies, seen as poles on continua, such as coll / warm, shy/venturesome, not assertive/domonant. Eysenck (1964) identifies two general traits,a gain represented as dichotomies – extrovert and neurotic/ stable. However with one or two exceptions, SLA researchers have preferred to develop their own battery of personality traits, calling them anything from social style to egocentric factors. Some researchers (Dulay, Burt, and Krashen 1982) even include cognitive style as a personality traits.
In conclusion, in general the available research does not show a cleraly defined effect of personality on SLA. One reason why this is so may be because personality becomes major factor in the acquisition of communicative competence. The major difficulty in investigating the effects of personality, however, remains that of identification and measuremets. At the moment failure to find an expected relationship may be because`the test used`to measure the personality trait lacks validity. It follows that not only can such failure of the measurements used.
Summary and Conclusion
The purpose of studying individual learners variables is to see how they affect SLA. This involves two rather separate issues. The first is what the effects are. And the second is how individual factors influence SLA.
1. motivation and attitudes are important factors, which help to determine the level of proficiency achieved by different learners.
2. the effect of motivation or attitudes appear to be separate from the effect of aptitude. The most succesful learners will be those who have both a tallent and a high level of motivation of learning.
3. in certain situations an interogative motivation may more powerful in fasilitating successful L2 learners, but in other situations instrumental motivations may count far more.
4. the level abd type of motivation is strongly influenced by the social context in which learning takes place, as has already been noted.
The role of motivation in SLA has been the subject of extensive scholarship, closely influenced by work in motivational psychology. Motivation is internally complex, and Dörnyei (2001a, p. 1) begins his work by stating that "strictly speaking, there is no such thing as motivation." There are many different kinds of motivation; these are often divided into types such as integrative or instrumental, intrinsic or extrinsic. Intrinsic motivation refers to the desire to do something for an internal reward. Most studies have shown it to be substantially more effective in long-term language learning than extrinsic motivation, for an external reward such as high grades or praise. Integrative and instrumental orientations refer to the degree that a language is learned "for its own sake" (integratively) or for instrumental purposes. Studies have not consistently shown either form of motivation to be more effective than the other, and the role of each is probably conditioned by various personality and cultural factors.
Some research has shown that motivation correlates strongly with proficiency, indicating both that successful learners are motivated and that success improves motivation. Thus motivation is not fixed, but is strongly affected by feedback from the environment. Accordingly, the study of motivation in SLA has also examined many of the external factors discussed above, such as the effect of instructional techniques on motivation. An accessible summary of this research can be found in Dörnyei (2001a).
In their research on Willingness to communicate, MacIntyre et al (1998) have shown that motivation is not the final construct before learners engage in communication. In fact, learners may be highly motivated yet remain unwilling to communicate.
Personality
In general psychology, personality has been explored in terms of a number of personal traits, which in aggregate are said to constitute the personality of an individual. Cattell (1970), for instance attemps to measure personality using a series of dichotomies, seen as poles on continua, such as coll / warm, shy/venturesome, not assertive/domonant. Eysenck (1964) identifies two general traits,a gain represented as dichotomies – extrovert and neurotic/ stable. However with one or two exceptions, SLA researchers have preferred to develop their own battery of personality traits, calling them anything from social style to egocentric factors. Some researchers (Dulay, Burt, and Krashen 1982) even include cognitive style as a personality traits.
In conclusion, in general the available research does not show a cleraly defined effect of personality on SLA. One reason why this is so may be because personality becomes major factor in the acquisition of communicative competence. The major difficulty in investigating the effects of personality, however, remains that of identification and measuremets. At the moment failure to find an expected relationship may be because`the test used`to measure the personality trait lacks validity. It follows that not only can such failure of the measurements used.
Summary and Conclusion
The purpose of studying individual learners variables is to see how they affect SLA. This involves two rather separate issues. The first is what the effects are. And the second is how individual factors influence SLA.
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